The term “endemic,” when applied to disease, is a spatial term: it means a particular disease is native or persistently present in a specific place. The terms “epidemic” and “pandemic,” by contrast, generally denote events – disease outbreaks that occurred at specific times, when the incidence of a given disease significantly increased. The Greeks and Romans, lacking germ theory, used a generic language for disease events – lues, loimoi, etc. – words that mean “pestilence” or “plague,” as long as we remember that the latter term does not always mean the plague, bubonic plague, the disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.
The list below represents a reasonably comprehensive effort to gather the evidence we have for epidemics/pandemics in the territories of the Roman Empire from ca. 200 BC to ca. 600 AD. It draws on previous compilations, such as Stathakopoulos’ catalogue for late antiquity. *This is a draft, and I would be immensely grateful if you know of any pestilences I’ve missed in this database!*
A few quick observations on the data:
- This list is surely wildly incomplete and unrepresentative. Probably, epidemic mortality was so common that it mostly went unnoticed.
- The city of Rome, via the history of Livy, dominates the first part of the record, whereas the coverage becomes somewhat more geographically balanced in the later centuries.
- Interregional events – spreading beyond one province or so – were rare before the outbreak of the Antonine Plague. It seems unlikely that pandemics occurred but went unattested. The Antonine Plague, Cyprian Plague, and Justinianic Plague, are each attested by more than a dozen sources.
A lot more could be said, and I would welcome comments or suggestions. I hope the data are useful to others and appreciate any efforts to help make this dataset better.
The data (with some additional fields) are available in an Excel spreadsheet here: pestilence database.
| Date | Source | Location | Report |
| -187 | Livy 38.44.7 | Rome and environs | A grave pestilence struck the city and the country (urbem atque agros) |
| -181 | Livy 40.19.3; Obsequens 6 | Rome and whole region | Obsequens says a plague killed so many it overwhelmed Libitina. Livy reports pestilence in city and country. |
| -180 | Livy 40.36.14 | Rome and Italy | A pestilence raged for three years in Rome and Italy (182, 181, and 180) |
| -174 | Livy 41.21.5-11; Obsequens 10 | Rome | Livy: Pestilence year before affected the cattle now turned into human pestilence; victims die before 7th day; long illness, a quartan fever; the dead left unburied. Obsequens: grave pestilence of men and cattle overwhelmed Libitina. |
| -165 | Obsequens 13 | Rome | There was such suffering from famine and plague that Sibylline books were consulted. |
| -142 | Obsequens 22; Orosius 5.4.8-9 | Rome; Northern Italy | Obsequens says there was famine and pestilence, presumably at Rome, and also adds that at Luna the pestilence was so grave corpses were lying around. Orosius places a horrific plague at Rome. |
| -126 | Obsequens 29 | Lipari Islands | Earthquakes, etc., cast up dead fish, which the islanders eat and suffer a plague |
| -125 | Livy Per. 60; Obsequens 30; Aug. Civ. Dei 3.31; Orosius 5.11.1-7 | Africa | Livy Per. 60 says there was a pestilentia of a huge number of locusts in Africa and many died. Obsequens says great locust swarms in Africa, and then a livestock plague in Cyrene, the putrefaction of which killed 800,000 people. Orosius too has locusts swarms, die in Ocean, pushed on shore, putrefaction kills animals and humans. In Numidia 800,000 people died; at Carthage and Utica more than 200,000 died; in Utica 30,000 soldiers killed and 1500 a day carried out. |
| -74 | Appian, Mithr, 76 | Cyzicus | Army of Mithridates laying siege to Cyz goes hungry, plague begins from bodies unburied. |
| -43 | Cassius Dio 45.17.8 | Italy | Pestilence across Italy (follows massive volcanic event of 44 BC) |
| -23 | Cassius Dio 53.33.4 | Rome | Deadly year in Rome; Tiber floods |
| -22 | Cassius Dio 54.1.3 | Italy | Pestilence across Italy; Tiber floods. |
| 65 | Tacitus Ann 16.13; Suetonius Nero 39; Orosius 7.7.1011 | Rome | Autumn plague in Rome killed 30,000; Storms in Italy |
| 77 | Orosius 7.9 | Rome | Plague in Rome |
| 79/80 | Suetonius, Titus 8.3; Epit. de Caes. 10.13; Jerome Chron. ann. 65; Cassius Dio 66.23.5 | Rome | Vesuvius erupts; unprecedented plague in Rome, 10,000 die daily. |
| 117-38 | Hist. Aug. Hadrian 21.5 | empire | Pestilence under Hadrian. Timing and location unclear. |
| 148 | Galen Anat. Admin. 1.2; Ven. Art. Dissect. 7 | Asia (province) | Epidemic of anthrax in many cities of Asia |
| 165-72 | numerous: Harper 2017 Chapter 2 | Empire | From ca. 165, a massive pandemic sweeps the entire empire. Known as the Antonine Plague, the pathogen is most often considered to be smallpox. |
| 178-9 | SB 16.12816 | Egypt | Probable relapse of Antonine Plague |
| 182-3 | AE 1994, 1334 | Noricum | Probable relapse of Antonine Plague |
| 191 | Cassius Dio 73.14 | Rome | Probable relapse of Antonine Plague |
| 249-270 | numerous: Harper 2017 Chapter 3 | Empire | From ca. 249, a massive pandemic sweeps the entire empire. Known as the Plague of Cyprian, its pathogenic agent is unknown. |
| 273 | Bonneau 1971, 257 | Oxyrhynchite nome | See darmc.harvard.edu, Item 276 |
| 304-5 | Theophanes, Chron. 13 | empire | Wars, famines, plagues, droughts: not reliable according to Stathakopoulos |
| 312-3 | Stathakopoulos #4 | eastern Mediterranean | Eusebius describes smallpox-like pestilence |
| 333 | Stathakopoulos #5 | Syria, Cilicia | famine induces pestilence |
| 346 | Stathakopoulos #8 | Thebais, Egypt | severe pestilence afflicts monastery |
| 359 | Stathakopoulos #11 | Amida | Siege leads to pestilence |
| 360 | Stathakopoulos #13 | Amblada | Drought and pestilence follow exile of teacher |
| 360-1 | Stathakopoulos #14 | Phbow, Thebais | Monastery struck by pestilence |
| 363 | Stathakopoulos #17 | Persian frontier | Army ravaged by hunger and pestilence after death of Julian |
| 378-9 | Stathakopoulos #26 | Illyricum | Ambrose describes epizootic and epidemics related to arrival of Goths across Danube |
| 383 | Stathakopoulos #28 | Macedonia | Ambrose reports terrible pestilence sent to punish Goths |
| 384-5 | Stathakopoulos #30 | Antioch | Famine and pestilence in Antioch |
| 395-6 or 396-7 | Stathakopoulos #36 | Peloponnese | Army of Alaric struck by disease |
| 397-8 | Stathakopoulos #37 | Rome | During revolt of Gildo, famine in Rome and terrible contagious disease |
| 400 | Stathakopoulos #38 | Empire | After fall of Eutropius, plagues |
| around 406 | Stathakopoulos #40 | Palestine | Locust swarms cause outbreak of animal and human plagues |
| 405 or 406-7 | Stathakopoulos #41 | Cappadocia | John Chrysostom in exile reports plagues wars etc. |
| 408 | Stathakopoulos #42 | Rome | Siege of Alaric = epidemic |
| 410 | Stathakopoulos #46 | Spain | Famine and plague ravage Spain during Visigothic invasion |
| 434 | Stathakopoulos #54 | Pannonia? | Plague afflicts Hunnic army |
| 440s | Stathakopoulos #55 | outside Antioch | Simeon Stylite predicts famine and pestilence, then they happen |
| 442 | Stathakopoulos #57 | World | Hydatius reports a comet and a pandemic |
| 445 | Stathakopoulos #59 | Constantinople | Marcellinus Comes reports food shortage, riots, disease |
| 446 | Stathakopoulos #60 | Constantinople | Marcellinus Comes: food shortage, plague |
| 447 | Stathakopoulos #61 | Constantinople and region | Famine and pestilence killed animals and men |
| ~451-4 | Stathakopoulos #64 | Anatolia and Levant | Drought leads to hunger leads to eating poisonous plants equals plague |
| 451-2 | Stathakopoulos #65 | Italy | Famine and disease afflict Huns |
| 467 | Stathakopoulos #70 | Rome | Severe pestilence in reign of Anthemius |
| 471 | Stathakopoulos #72 | Rome | War, famine, and according to Paul the Deacon, sickness |
| 494-5 | Stathakopoulos #78 | Edessa | famine and plague |
| 495-6 | Stathakopoulos #79 | Edessa | famine and plague |
| 500-2 | Stathakopoulos #80 | Edessa | locusts, famine, plague |
| 525-31? | Stathakopoulos #88 | Orient | Six year drought, famine, plague in Agapios |
| 537 | Stathakopoulos #94 | Rome | Armies besieging Rome suffer epidemic |
| 539 | Stathakopoulos #98 | Italy | War leads to hunger leads to epidemics |
| 539 | Stathakopoulos #100 | Po Valley | Frankish army struck with dysentery |
| 541-4 | Numerous | Empire | Justinianic Plague – beginning of first Pandemic of bubonic plague. |
| 547 | Annales Cambriae | Wales | great mortality |
| 550 | Annals of Tigernach; Annals of Ulster | Ireland | “great mortality” from “yellow plague” |
| 554 | Agathias | S Italy | Alamanii army struck by epidemic |
| 558 | Harper Appendix 1 #1 | Constantionople and surrounding countries | Bubonic plague |
| 561-2 | Harper Appendix 1 #2 | Cilicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia | Bubonic plague |
| 565-71 | Harper Appendix 1 #3 | Northern Italy | Bubonic plague |
| 569-70 | Gregory of Tours: see Newfield 2015 | Gaul | bovine epidemics |
| 571 | Harper Appendix 1 #4 | Italy, Gaul | Bubonic plague |
| 573-4 | Harper Appendix 1 #5 | Constantinople, Egypt, East | Bubonic plague |
| 574 | Annals of Tigernach etc. | Ireland; Britain? | scintilla leprae et abundantia nucum inaudita; bloggach. Bubonic plague has been mooted (Woods) but speculative at best. |
| 580 | Gregory of Tours Hist. 5.34 | Gaul | Dysentery strikes whole of Gaul |
| 582 | Harper Appendix 1 #6 | Southwestern Gaul | Bubonic plague in Narbonne in 582 and various places in 584; Gregory also lists other diseases in 582 |
| 584 | Harper Appendix 1 #6 | Southwestern Gaul | Bubonic plague in Narbonne in 582 and various places in 584; Gregory also lists other diseases in 582 |
| 586 | Harper Appendix 1 #7 | Constantinople | Pestilence (plague?) |
| 588 | Harper Appendix 1 #8 | Gaul | Bubonic plague |
| 590-1 | Harper Appendix 1 #9 and 10 | Italy, France | Bubonic plague |
| 592 | Harper Appendix 1 #11 | Palestine, Syria | Bubonic plague |
| 597 | Harper Appendix 1 #12 | Thessalonica and countryside | Bubonic plague |
| 598 | Harper Appendix 1 #13 | Thrace | Bubonic plague |
| 599-600 | Harper Appendix 1 #14 | Constantinople, Asia Minor, Syria, North Africa, Italy | Bubonic plague |
